Epilepsy

Disease overview

Alterations

107

Molecular (A)

100

Clinical (B–E)

Trial outcome measures (T)

Direct drugs

132

Via biomarker

Natural agents

Natural products

Merged ranked

187

With trial/literature evidence

Sources: Open Targets, HPO, ClinicalTrials.gov, DGIdb, ChEMBL, PubMed Literature, PubMed NP, ClinicalTrials.gov NP · Pipeline phase 7 · Updated 2026-10-15

Remission & chronicity

Spontaneous remission

60-85% achieve seizure freedom on medication; of those, 50-75% remain seizure-free after withdrawal (varies by syndrome and duration of freedom)

Best-intervention remission

Not clearly higher than on-medication rates -- the real gap is behavioral/practice

Drug-free remission

—

Relapse after remission

—

Chronicity

—

Gap size

Small biological gap; large practice gap

Primary barrier

practice

Barrier detail: Only 26-45% of seizure-free patients who are candidates for medication withdrawal ever attempt it; physician and patient reluctance vastly exceeds biological risk

Last SoC change: 2023 — FDA approved cenobamate, fenfluramine for Dravet; first-line ASM (levetiracetam, lamotrigine, valproate) unchanged since 1990s-2000s; ketogenic diet formally endorsed in 2018 AES guidelines

Remission data layers: disease_db_100 · source-locked manual data · confidence: high

Identifiers: MONDO: MONDO:0005027

Alterations

107 total · Types A (molecular) through E (functional). Molecular rows are Open Targets gene–disease associations (evidence column = OT association score), not measured levels; phenotypes are HPO terms annotated directly to this disease (Monarch); type T rows are outcome measures used in completed ClinicalTrials.gov studies, not alterations of the disease.

Hide alterations without a value (no direction or frequency)

Name	Type	Subtype	Direction	Frequency	Evidence	Sources	Links
SCN1A sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.93	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SCN2A sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.91	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SCN8A sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 8	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.90	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRG2 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit gamma2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.90	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SCN3A sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 3	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.89	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCNQ2 potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily Q member 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.89	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SLC2A1 solute carrier family 2 member 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.89	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRA1 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit alpha1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.88	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GRIN2A glutamate ionotropic receptor NMDA type subunit 2A	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.88	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CACNA1A calcium voltage-gated channel subunit alpha1 A	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.88	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRB3 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit beta3	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.88	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
STXBP1 syntaxin binding protein 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.87	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCNT1 potassium sodium-activated channel subfamily T member 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.87	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CDKL5 cyclin dependent kinase like 5	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.87	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRB2 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit beta2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.86	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PCDH19 protocadherin 19	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.86	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
DEPDC5 DEP domain containing 5, GATOR1 subcomplex subunit	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.86	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
WWOX WW domain containing oxidoreductase	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.85	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
NHLRC1 NHL repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.85	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PRRT2 proline rich transmembrane protein 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.85	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCNMA1 potassium calcium-activated channel subfamily M alpha 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
EPM2A EPM2A glucan phosphatase, laforin	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PNKP polynucleotide kinase 3'-phosphatase	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ALDH7A1 aldehyde dehydrogenase 7 family member A1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
TBC1D24 TBC1 domain family member 24	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ZEB2 zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
LGI1 leucine rich glioma inactivated 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CACNA1E calcium voltage-gated channel subunit alpha1 E	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.84	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SCN1B sodium voltage-gated channel beta subunit 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.83	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
HCN1 hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide gated potassium channel 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.83	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ARX aristaless related homeobox	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.83	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCTD7 potassium channel tetramerization domain containing 7	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.83	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRB1 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit beta1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.83	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GNAO1 G protein subunit alpha o1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.82	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PIGA phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor biosynthesis class A	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.82	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PPP3CA protein phosphatase 3 catalytic subunit alpha	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.82	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CSTB cystatin B	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.82	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SYNGAP1 synaptic Ras GTPase activating protein 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.82	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRA2 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit alpha2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.82	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
DNM1 dynamin 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.82	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CHD2 chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
UBA5 ubiquitin like modifier activating enzyme 5	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GRIN2B glutamate ionotropic receptor NMDA type subunit 2B	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
EEF1A2 eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SLC25A22 solute carrier family 25 member 22	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ASAH1 N-acylsphingosine amidohydrolase 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SPTAN1 spectrin alpha, non-erythrocytic 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PLCB1 phospholipase C beta 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PNPO pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate oxidase	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ARHGEF9 Cdc42 guanine nucleotide exchange factor 9	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SCARB2 scavenger receptor class B member 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.81	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
RELN reelin	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.80	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRA5 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit alpha5	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.80	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GOSR2 golgi SNAP receptor complex member 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.80	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CYFIP2 cytoplasmic FMR1 interacting protein 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.80	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SLC25A12 solute carrier family 25 member 12	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.80	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CDK19 cyclin dependent kinase 19	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.80	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SLC12A5 solute carrier family 12 member 5	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.80	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ITPA inosine triphosphatase	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCNA2 potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily A member 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CACNA2D2 calcium voltage-gated channel auxiliary subunit alpha2delta 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
MECP2 methyl-CpG binding protein 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ATP1A3 ATPase Na+/K+ transporting subunit alpha 3	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
NPRL3 NPR3 like, GATOR1 complex subunit	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
HNRNPU heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein U	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SZT2 SZT2 subunit of KICSTOR complex	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ATP6V1A ATPase H+ transporting V1 subunit A	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GRIN2D glutamate ionotropic receptor NMDA type subunit 2D	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCNB1 potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily B member 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
HACE1 HECT domain and ankyrin repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
BRAT1 BRCA1 associated ATM activator 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
UGDH UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.79	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SLC6A1 solute carrier family 6 member 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCNC2 potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily C member 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
NPRL2 NPR2 like, GATOR1 complex subunit	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
OTUD6B OTU deubiquitinase 6B	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
FBXO28 F-box protein 28	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
AARS1 alanyl-tRNA synthetase 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
DOCK7 dedicator of cytokinesis 7	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
MDH2 malate dehydrogenase 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.78	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ALG13 ALG13 UDP-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase subunit	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ATP1A2 ATPase Na+/K+ transporting subunit alpha 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SLC1A2 solute carrier family 1 member 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CACNA2D1 calcium voltage-gated channel auxiliary subunit alpha2delta 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
RHOBTB2 Rho related BTB domain containing 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SYN1 synapsin I	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
SCN9A sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 9	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
ACTL6B actin like 6B	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
KCNH5 potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily H member 5	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.77	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
EFHC1 EF-hand domain containing 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.76	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
AP3B2 adaptor related protein complex 3 subunit beta 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.76	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PIGQ phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor biosynthesis class Q	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.76	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
STRADA STE20 related adaptor alpha	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.76	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CACNA1H calcium voltage-gated channel subunit alpha1 H	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.76	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GABRA3 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit alpha3	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.75	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
GRIN1 glutamate ionotropic receptor NMDA type subunit 1	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.75	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
FGF13 fibroblast growth factor 13	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.75	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
PACS2 phosphofurin acidic cluster sorting protein 2	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.75	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CHRNA4 cholinergic receptor nicotinic alpha 4 subunit	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.71	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
CHRNB2 cholinergic receptor nicotinic beta 2 subunit	Molecular	Gene	—	—	OT score 0.70	Open Targets	UniProt Ensembl Open Targets
Seizure	Pathology	Pathological finding	—	—	HPO annotation	HPO, Monarch	HPO
Adherence rate (short-term)	Trial outcome measure	Lab value	—	—	Trial outcome measure	ClinicalTrials.gov	—
Anxiety as measured by the General Anxiety Disorder 7-item scale (GAD-7)	Trial outcome measure	Clinical scale	—	—	Trial outcome measure	ClinicalTrials.gov	—
Depression as measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire depression scale (PHQ-9)	Trial outcome measure	Clinical scale	—	—	Trial outcome measure	ClinicalTrials.gov	—
Quality of life as assessed by the Quality of Life in Epilepsy (QOLIE-10-P) survey	Trial outcome measure	Clinical scale	—	—	Trial outcome measure	ClinicalTrials.gov	—
Sleep as measures by the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS)	Trial outcome measure	Clinical scale	—	—	Trial outcome measure	ClinicalTrials.gov	—
patient satisfaction	Trial outcome measure	Lab value	—	—	Trial outcome measure	ClinicalTrials.gov	—

Therapeutics

Direct disease associations, biomarker-linked drugs, OSMF narrative-review natural agents, and merged ranking. Only agents with registry trials or published clinical literature are shown by default.

Show agents without direct trial evidence

Drug	Type	Phase	Evidence	Score	Price (UK / US)	Trials & literature	Sources	Links
ACETAZOLAMIDE	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	100	UK £3–£8 / 28–56 tabs · US $8–$15 / 30 tabs	2 trials 2 Cochrane 2 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT00552526 — Ketogenic Diet vs.Antiepileptic Drug Treatment in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE4 NCT02904265 — Efficacy Study of Acetazolamide Versus Diazepam in Continuous Spike and Wave/Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (TERMINATED) PHASE2, PHASE3 Published literature Cochrane review Treatments for seizures in catamenial (menstrual-related) epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2021) Cochrane review Treatments for seizures in catamenial (menstrual-related) epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2019) Systematic review Episodic Ataxias: Primary and Secondary Etiologies, Treatment, and Classification Approaches (Tremor and other hyperkinetic movements (New York, N.Y.), 2023) Clinical trial publication AZATAX: Acetazolamide safety and efficacy in cerebellar syndrome in PMM2 congenital disorder of glycosylation (PMM2-CDG) (Annals of neurology, 2019) Clinical trial publication Acetazolamide in bipolar affective disorders (Annals of clinical psychiatry : official journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists, 1994) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets, ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CIPROFLOXACIN	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	100	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	2 trials 1 Trial pubs View evidence Registry trials NCT01431326 — Pharmacokinetics of Understudied Drugs Administered to Children Per Standard of Care (COMPLETED) NCT04763070 — Ciprofloxacin in Drug-resistant Epilepsy (COMPLETED) NA Published literature Systematic review Seizures as adverse events of antibiotic drugs: A systematic review (Neurology, 2015) Clinical trial publication Interaction between quinolones and caffeine (Drugs, 1987) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets, ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIAZEPAM	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	100	UK £1–£3 / 28 tabs · US $3–$8 / 30 tabs	8 trials 13 Cochrane 8 Meta-analysis 63 Trial pubs 28 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02904265 — Efficacy Study of Acetazolamide Versus Diazepam in Continuous Spike and Wave/Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (TERMINATED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT02724423 — Repeat-Dose Pharmacokinetics Study of NRL-1 in Epilepsy Subjects (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT05361447 — Diazepam Trial in GAD65 Associated Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT03636958 — Efficacy and Safety of Perampanel in Combination in Glioma-refractory Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) NA NCT03346382 — Emergency Medical Services and Epilepsy in Switzerland (COMPLETED) NCT03953820 — Diazepam Buccal Film (DBF) - Diastat Rectal Gel (DRG) Crossover Study (COMPLETED) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT03179891 — Study of Diazepam Buccal Film Administered in the Interictal and in the Ictal-Periictal States to Adults With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT02474407 — Bioavailability, Safety and Tolerability of Diazepam Nasal Spray Versus Diazepam Rectal Gel (Diastat®) (TERMINATED) PHASE2 Published literature Cochrane review Target Trial Emulation Meta-Analysis of Benzodiazepines For Out-of-Hospital Status Epilepticus in Adults (Evidance health sciences, 2026) Cochrane review Unmet needs in epileptic encephalopathy with spike-and-wave activation in sleep: A systematic review (Epilepsy research, 2024) Cochrane review Evidence-based guideline on management of status epilepticus in adult intensive care unit in resource-limited settings: a review article (Annals of medicine and surgery (2012), 2023) Cochrane review Antiepileptic drugs for the primary and secondary prevention of seizures after stroke (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2022) Cochrane review Prophylactic drug management for febrile seizures in children (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2021) Meta-analysis Effects of tranquilization therapy in elderly patients suffering from chronic non-communicable diseases: A meta-analysis (Acta pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia), 2023) Meta-analysis Intravenous sodium valproate in status epilepticus: review and Meta-analysis (The International journal of neuroscience, 2021) Meta-analysis Drug management for acute tonic-clonic convulsions including convulsive status epilepticus in children (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2018) Meta-analysis Anticonvulsant therapy for status epilepticus (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2014) Systematic review Pre-hospital and emergency department treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in adults: an evidence synthesis (Health technology assessment (Winchester, England), 2022) Systematic review Management of the first stage of convulsive status epilepticus in adults: a systematic review of current randomised evidence (Journal of neurology, 2022) Clinical trial publication Pharmacokinetics and 180-day safety of diazepam nasal spray in pediatric patients with epilepsy aged 2-5 years (Epilepsia, 2025) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets, ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENYTOIN	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	100	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	8 trials 89 Cochrane 60 Meta-analysis 204 Trial pubs 99 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT03325439 — A Study to Test the Pharmacokinetics, Efficacy, and Safety of Brivaracetam in Newborns With Repeated Electroencephalographic Seizures (TERMINATED) PHASE3 NCT00552526 — Ketogenic Diet vs.Antiepileptic Drug Treatment in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE4 NCT00426673 — An Open-Label Interaction Study to Look at the Effects of Brivaracetam on Phenytoin When Taken Together in 15 Adult Patients With Epilepsy. (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT00510783 — IV Keppra in the Emergency Department for Prevention of Early Recurrent Seizures (COMPLETED) PHASE4 NCT02056236 — TELSTAR: Treatment of ELectroencephalographic STatus Epilepticus After Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (COMPLETED) NA NCT05236166 — Multicentre Study on Rapid Versus Slow Withdrawal of Antiepileptic Monotherapy (COMPLETED) NA NCT00627575 — AED/Statin Interaction Study (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT00612235 — Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder and Antiepileptic Drugs (COMPLETED) Published literature Cochrane review Breaking the resistance: a narrative review of the evolution from traditional drugs to precision therapies in epilepsy (Annals of medicine and surgery (2012), 2026) Cochrane review Psychiatric and behavioural side effects of antiseizure medications in epilepsy (Journal of neurology, 2025) Cochrane review Effects of Antiseizure Medications on Lipid Profile and Weight in Patients with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis (CNS drugs, 2025) Cochrane review Seizure control and adverse outcomes of lamotrigine use during pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2024) Cochrane review Anti-seizure medications for neonates with seizures (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2023) Meta-analysis Role of different anti-seizure medications on carotid intima-media thickness: A systematic review and meta-analysis (Medicine, 2025) Meta-analysis Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam for pediatric convulsive status epilepticus in emergency settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis (BMC neurology, 2025) Meta-analysis Valproic acid-induced hyperammonemia with encephalopathy in adults: A meta-analysis (International journal of clinical pharmacology and therapeutics, 2025) Meta-analysis Guidelines for Seizure Prophylaxis in Patients Hospitalized with Nontraumatic Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Clinical Practice Guideline for Health Care Professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society (Neurocritical care, 2025) Systematic review Pharmacogenomics of anti-seizure medications in epilepsy: a systematic review of genetic predictors of response and tolerance (Expert review of neurotherapeutics, 2026) Systematic review Optimizing phenytoin therapy: a systematic review of clinically relevant food and herb interactions (Frontiers in pharmacology, 2025) Systematic review Cytotoxic lesions of the corpus callosum related to epilepsy or anti-seizure medications: a systematic review (Seizure, 2025) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets, ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
SIROLIMUS	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	100	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	8 trials 2 Cochrane 3 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT04595513 — Stopping TSC Onset and Progression 2: Epilepsy Prevention in TSC Infants (COMPLETED) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT05534672 — Placebo Controlled Study to Assess the Efficacy and Safety of Rapamycin in Drug Resistant Epilepsy Associated With Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (RECRUITING) PHASE3 NCT05104983 — Stopping TSC Onset and Progression 2B: Sirolimus TSC Epilepsy Prevention Study (RECRUITING) PHASE2 NCT00509431 — Erlotinib and Sirolimus in Treating Patients With Recurrent Malignant Glioma (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT03198949 — A Study Investigating the Anti-epileptic Efficacy of Afinitor (Everolimus) in Patients With Refractory Seizures Who Have Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type II (FCD II) (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT02451696 — A Pilot Study To Evaluate The Effects of Everolimus on Brain mTOR Activity and Cortical Hyperexcitability in TSC and FCD (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT07095933 — The Safety and Efficacy Evaluation of Everolimus as an Adjunctive Treatment for Focal Refractory Epilepsy (RECRUITING) EARLY_PHASE1 NCT07680322 — A Phase 2 Study of the Safety and Efficacy of AV078 in Participants With Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) Refractory Epilepsy (NOT_YET_RECRUITING) PHASE2 Published literature Cochrane review Prenatal mTOR Inhibitors in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex: Current Insights and Future Directions (Journal of clinical medicine, 2024) Cochrane review Interaction of cannabidiol with other antiseizure medications: A narrative review (Seizure, 2021) Clinical trial publication Effectiveness and safety of everolimus treatment in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex in real-world clinical practice (Orphanet journal of rare diseases, 2023) Clinical trial publication Sirolimus for epilepsy in children with tuberous sclerosis complex: A randomized controlled trial (Neurology, 2016) Clinical trial publication Mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors for intractable epilepsy and subependymal giant cell astrocytomas in tuberous sclerosis complex (The Journal of pediatrics, 2014) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets, ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TACROLIMUS ANHYDROUS	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	100	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT00545493 — Efficacy of Tacrolimus and I.V.-Immunoglobulins in Rasmussen Encephalitis (UNKNOWN) PHASE2, PHASE3 CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets, ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ACETYLDIGITOXIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
AMPHETAMINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 Cochrane 2 Trial pubs View evidence Published literature Cochrane review Efficacy and Safety of Fenfluramine in Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (Neurology and therapy, 2023) Clinical trial publication Association of leukocytosis with amphetamine and cocaine use (TheScientificWorldJournal, 2014) Clinical trial publication D-amphetamine and delinquency: hyperkinesis persisting? (Diseases of the nervous system, 1974) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
BICALUTAMIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARBACHOL Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLOMIPRAMINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DESLANOSIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
DICHLORPHENAMIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIETHYLSTILBESTROL Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIGITOXIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
DIGOXIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	2 trials 2 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02172742 — The Effect of BIA 2-093 on the Steady-state Pharmacokinetics of Digoxin (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT01583036 — An Open-label, Single-centre Study Evaluating the Pharmacokinetics of Digoxin Alone and When Administered at Various Doses of Ezogabine/Retigabine in Healthy Adults. The Pharmacokinetics of Ezogabine/Retigabine and the N-acetyl Metabolite of Ezogabine/Retigabine (NAMR) Will Also be Assessed (COMPLETED) PHASE1 Published literature Clinical trial publication Effect of eslicarbazepine acetate on the pharmacokinetics of digoxin in healthy subjects (Fundamental & clinical pharmacology, 2009) Clinical trial publication [Digoxin--an active antiepileptic agent] (Farmakologiia i toksikologiia, 1991) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
EPIRUBICIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Hospital / IV specialty — prices per vial or dose (often hundreds–thousands USD/GBP)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHOXZOLAMIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FLUMAZENIL Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
IMIPRAMINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
INDAPAMIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
INDOMETHACIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	28 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ISOSORBIDE DINITRATE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MAFENIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MECAMYLAMINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHAZOLAMIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHOXSALEN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
METOPROLOL Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	UK £2–£4 / 28 tabs · US $4–$9 / 30 tabs	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MIANSERIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
NALIDIXIC ACID Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
NICOTINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 trials 2 Cochrane 1 Meta-analysis 3 Trial pubs 2 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT06427967 — A Novel Social Emotional Learning Curriculum for Youth With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) NA Published literature Cochrane review How do smoking, vaping, and nicotine affect people with epilepsy and seizures? A scoping review protocol (PloS one, 2023) Cochrane review Use of Topiramate in the Spectrum of Addictive and Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review Comparing Treatment Schemes, Efficacy, and Safety Features (CNS drugs, 2021) Meta-analysis Exploring the Smoking-Epilepsy Nexus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies : Smoking and epilepsy (BMC medicine, 2024) Systematic review Nicotine as target-therapy in Sleep-Related Hypermotor Epilepsy due to nAChR genes mutation: case report and systematic review of literature (Sleep medicine, 2026) Systematic review Sudden Death in Adults Caused by Intracranial Pathology: A Systematic Review (Turkish neurosurgery, 2023) Systematic review Nicotine: A Targeted Therapy for Epilepsy Due to nAChR Gene Variants (Journal of child neurology, 2021) Clinical trial publication Nicotine increases sleep spindle activity (Journal of sleep research, 2019) Clinical trial publication Impact of an electronic cigarette on smoking reduction and cessation in schizophrenic smokers: a prospective 12-month pilot study (International journal of environmental research and public health, 2013) Clinical trial publication Nicotine as an antiepileptic agent in ADNFLE: an N-of-one study (Epilepsia, 2003) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
NIRAPARIB Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
NORFLOXACIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	3 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
OFLOXACIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 Trial pubs View evidence Published literature Clinical trial publication Interaction between quinolones and caffeine (Drugs, 1987) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
OLANZAPINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	2 Cochrane View evidence Published literature Cochrane review Interventions for psychotic symptoms concomitant with epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2015) Cochrane review Interventions for psychotic symptoms concomitant with epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2008) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
OLAPARIB Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
PRAZOSIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	UK £2–£6 / 28–60 tabs · US $5–$12 / 30–60 tabs	21 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
RUCAPARIB Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
SULBACTAM Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	8 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TALAZOPARIB Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
TAZOBACTAM Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT01431326 — Pharmacokinetics of Understudied Drugs Administered to Children Per Standard of Care (COMPLETED) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TROGLITAZONE Repurposing	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
APOMORPHINE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CHOLECALCIFEROL	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DRONABINOL	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
HUMAN IMMUNOGLOBULIN G	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
NABIXIMOLS	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
NALOXONE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PADSEVONIL	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SELETRACETAM	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SERTRALINE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	UK £1–£3 / 28 tabs · US $4–$9 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VORMATRIGINE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DARAPLADIB Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	70	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FENRETINIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	70	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
2-DEOXY-D-GLUCOSE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Research / experimental compound — pricing not applicable for routine clinical use	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ACETYLCYSTEINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	UK £5–£12 / 30 tabs or effervescent · US $8–$15 / 30-60 tabs (NAC)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALLOPURINOL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	UK £1–£3 / 28 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30-90 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALPRAZOLAM	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BECAMPANEL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BELNACASAN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CANNABIDIVARIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARVEDILOL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	UK £2–£5 / 28 tabs · US $5–$10 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLIOQUINOL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIAZEPINOMICIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DOCONEXENT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
EVEROLIMUS	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FLUOXETINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ICOSAPENT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
JNJ-26489112	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
JNJ-40411813	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
KETAMINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MELATONIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MIDAZOLAM HYDROCHLORIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
OMEGA-3-ACID ETHYL ESTERS	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PYRIDOXINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RESEQUINIL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SELURAMPANEL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SENKTIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SUVECALTAMIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TONABERSAT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TRIHEPTANOIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALROCEMIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VATIQUINONE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VORINOSTAT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
NM-702 Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	50	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	DGIdb	—
PEFCALCITOL Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	50	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	DGIdb	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALPRENOLOL Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
AMIFLOXACIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
BROLAMFETAMINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARZENIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIFLOXACIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIMECAMINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ELLAGIC ACID Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ENISOPROST Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FENCAMFAMIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FLEROXACIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
IDOXIFENE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
LYSERGIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MERAFLOXACIN Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TENAMFETAMINE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ZIDAPAMIDE Repurposing	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALBUMIN HUMAN	Biologic	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
AZETUKALNER	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DARATUMUMAB	Biologic	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
EMPAGLIFLOZIN	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LEUCINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEMANTINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MUSCIMOL	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PROPRANOLOL	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	UK £2–£5 / 28–56 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30–60 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RADIPRODIL	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SODIUM CHLORIDE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
THALIDOMIDE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VINPOCETINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ZANDATRIGINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
2	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Research / experimental compound — pricing not applicable for routine clinical use	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
2	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Research / experimental compound — pricing not applicable for routine clinical use	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALBENDAZOLE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
AMINO(DIPHENYLHYDANTOIN) VALERIC ACID	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BARBEXACLONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BECLAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BRIVARACETAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CANNABIDIOL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK Varies (specialist) · US $30–$80 / 30-day (varies by product)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARBAMAZEPINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARBON MONOXIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARISBAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CENOBAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLOBAZAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLONAZEPAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DEXAMETHASONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DEXMEDETOMIDINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIVALPROEX SODIUM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ESLICARBAZEPINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ESLICARBAZEPINE ACETATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETEROBARB	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHADIONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHOSUXIMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHOTOIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
EZOGABINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FELBAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FENFLURAMINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FOSPHENYTOIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GABAPENTIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £2–£5 / 28–100 tabs · US $5–$12 / 30–90 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GANAXOLONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GLIMEPIRIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GLYBURIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
IOMAZENIL (123I)	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LACOSAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LAMOTRIGINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LEVETIRACETAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LORCASERIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LOVASTATIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEPHENYTOIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEPHOBARBITAL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHARBITAL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHSUXIMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MIDAZOLAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
NITRAZEPAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
OXCARBAZEPINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PARAMETHADIONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PERAMPANEL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENACEMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENETURIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENOBARBITAL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENSUXIMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENYTOIN SODIUM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PREGABALIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PRIMIDONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PROGABIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PROPOFOL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RALITOLINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
REMIFENTANIL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RUFINAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
STIRIPENTOL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SULTHIAME	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TIAGABINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TOPIRAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TRIMETHADIONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALPROATE SODIUM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALPROIC ACID	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALPROMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VERAPAMIL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £2–£5 / 28 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30–60 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VERAPAMIL HYDROCHLORIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £2–£5 / 28 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30–60 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VIGABATRIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ZONISAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets

Drug	Type	Phase	Evidence	Score	Price (UK / US)	Trials & literature	Sources	Links
APOMORPHINE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CHOLECALCIFEROL	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DRONABINOL	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
HUMAN IMMUNOGLOBULIN G	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
NABIXIMOLS	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
NALOXONE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PADSEVONIL	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SELETRACETAM	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SERTRALINE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	UK £1–£3 / 28 tabs · US $4–$9 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VORMATRIGINE	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	80	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
2-DEOXY-D-GLUCOSE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Research / experimental compound — pricing not applicable for routine clinical use	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ACETYLCYSTEINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	UK £5–£12 / 30 tabs or effervescent · US $8–$15 / 30-60 tabs (NAC)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALLOPURINOL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	UK £1–£3 / 28 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30-90 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALPRAZOLAM	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BECAMPANEL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BELNACASAN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CANNABIDIVARIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARVEDILOL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	UK £2–£5 / 28 tabs · US $5–$10 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLIOQUINOL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIAZEPINOMICIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DOCONEXENT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
EVEROLIMUS	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FLUOXETINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ICOSAPENT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
JNJ-26489112	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
JNJ-40411813	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
KETAMINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MELATONIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MIDAZOLAM HYDROCHLORIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
OMEGA-3-ACID ETHYL ESTERS	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PYRIDOXINE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RESEQUINIL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SELURAMPANEL	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SENKTIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SUVECALTAMIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TACROLIMUS ANHYDROUS	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT00545493 — Efficacy of Tacrolimus and I.V.-Immunoglobulins in Rasmussen Encephalitis (UNKNOWN) PHASE2, PHASE3 CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TONABERSAT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TRIHEPTANOIN	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALROCEMIDE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VATIQUINONE	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VORINOSTAT	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	60	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALBUMIN HUMAN	Biologic	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
AZETUKALNER	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DARATUMUMAB	Biologic	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
EMPAGLIFLOZIN	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LEUCINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEMANTINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MUSCIMOL	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PROPRANOLOL	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	UK £2–£5 / 28–56 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30–60 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RADIPRODIL	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SIROLIMUS	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	8 trials 2 Cochrane 3 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT04595513 — Stopping TSC Onset and Progression 2: Epilepsy Prevention in TSC Infants (COMPLETED) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT05534672 — Placebo Controlled Study to Assess the Efficacy and Safety of Rapamycin in Drug Resistant Epilepsy Associated With Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (RECRUITING) PHASE3 NCT05104983 — Stopping TSC Onset and Progression 2B: Sirolimus TSC Epilepsy Prevention Study (RECRUITING) PHASE2 NCT00509431 — Erlotinib and Sirolimus in Treating Patients With Recurrent Malignant Glioma (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT03198949 — A Study Investigating the Anti-epileptic Efficacy of Afinitor (Everolimus) in Patients With Refractory Seizures Who Have Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type II (FCD II) (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT02451696 — A Pilot Study To Evaluate The Effects of Everolimus on Brain mTOR Activity and Cortical Hyperexcitability in TSC and FCD (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT07095933 — The Safety and Efficacy Evaluation of Everolimus as an Adjunctive Treatment for Focal Refractory Epilepsy (RECRUITING) EARLY_PHASE1 NCT07680322 — A Phase 2 Study of the Safety and Efficacy of AV078 in Participants With Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) Refractory Epilepsy (NOT_YET_RECRUITING) PHASE2 Published literature Cochrane review Prenatal mTOR Inhibitors in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex: Current Insights and Future Directions (Journal of clinical medicine, 2024) Cochrane review Interaction of cannabidiol with other antiseizure medications: A narrative review (Seizure, 2021) Clinical trial publication Effectiveness and safety of everolimus treatment in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex in real-world clinical practice (Orphanet journal of rare diseases, 2023) Clinical trial publication Sirolimus for epilepsy in children with tuberous sclerosis complex: A randomized controlled trial (Neurology, 2016) Clinical trial publication Mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors for intractable epilepsy and subependymal giant cell astrocytomas in tuberous sclerosis complex (The Journal of pediatrics, 2014) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SODIUM CHLORIDE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
THALIDOMIDE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VINPOCETINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ZANDATRIGINE	Small molecule	Phase I	Emerging	35	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
2	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Research / experimental compound — pricing not applicable for routine clinical use	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
2	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Research / experimental compound — pricing not applicable for routine clinical use	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ACETAZOLAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / 28–56 tabs · US $8–$15 / 30 tabs	2 trials 2 Cochrane 2 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT00552526 — Ketogenic Diet vs.Antiepileptic Drug Treatment in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE4 NCT02904265 — Efficacy Study of Acetazolamide Versus Diazepam in Continuous Spike and Wave/Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (TERMINATED) PHASE2, PHASE3 Published literature Cochrane review Treatments for seizures in catamenial (menstrual-related) epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2021) Cochrane review Treatments for seizures in catamenial (menstrual-related) epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2019) Systematic review Episodic Ataxias: Primary and Secondary Etiologies, Treatment, and Classification Approaches (Tremor and other hyperkinetic movements (New York, N.Y.), 2023) Clinical trial publication AZATAX: Acetazolamide safety and efficacy in cerebellar syndrome in PMM2 congenital disorder of glycosylation (PMM2-CDG) (Annals of neurology, 2019) Clinical trial publication Acetazolamide in bipolar affective disorders (Annals of clinical psychiatry : official journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists, 1994) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALBENDAZOLE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
AMINO(DIPHENYLHYDANTOIN) VALERIC ACID	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BARBEXACLONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BECLAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
BRIVARACETAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CANNABIDIOL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK Varies (specialist) · US $30–$80 / 30-day (varies by product)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARBAMAZEPINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARBON MONOXIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARISBAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CENOBAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CIPROFLOXACIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	2 trials 1 Trial pubs View evidence Registry trials NCT01431326 — Pharmacokinetics of Understudied Drugs Administered to Children Per Standard of Care (COMPLETED) NCT04763070 — Ciprofloxacin in Drug-resistant Epilepsy (COMPLETED) NA Published literature Systematic review Seizures as adverse events of antibiotic drugs: A systematic review (Neurology, 2015) Clinical trial publication Interaction between quinolones and caffeine (Drugs, 1987) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLOBAZAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLONAZEPAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DEXAMETHASONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DEXMEDETOMIDINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIAZEPAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £1–£3 / 28 tabs · US $3–$8 / 30 tabs	8 trials 13 Cochrane 8 Meta-analysis 63 Trial pubs 28 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02904265 — Efficacy Study of Acetazolamide Versus Diazepam in Continuous Spike and Wave/Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (TERMINATED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT02724423 — Repeat-Dose Pharmacokinetics Study of NRL-1 in Epilepsy Subjects (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT05361447 — Diazepam Trial in GAD65 Associated Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT03636958 — Efficacy and Safety of Perampanel in Combination in Glioma-refractory Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) NA NCT03346382 — Emergency Medical Services and Epilepsy in Switzerland (COMPLETED) NCT03953820 — Diazepam Buccal Film (DBF) - Diastat Rectal Gel (DRG) Crossover Study (COMPLETED) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT03179891 — Study of Diazepam Buccal Film Administered in the Interictal and in the Ictal-Periictal States to Adults With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT02474407 — Bioavailability, Safety and Tolerability of Diazepam Nasal Spray Versus Diazepam Rectal Gel (Diastat®) (TERMINATED) PHASE2 Published literature Cochrane review Target Trial Emulation Meta-Analysis of Benzodiazepines For Out-of-Hospital Status Epilepticus in Adults (Evidance health sciences, 2026) Cochrane review Unmet needs in epileptic encephalopathy with spike-and-wave activation in sleep: A systematic review (Epilepsy research, 2024) Cochrane review Evidence-based guideline on management of status epilepticus in adult intensive care unit in resource-limited settings: a review article (Annals of medicine and surgery (2012), 2023) Cochrane review Antiepileptic drugs for the primary and secondary prevention of seizures after stroke (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2022) Cochrane review Prophylactic drug management for febrile seizures in children (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2021) Meta-analysis Effects of tranquilization therapy in elderly patients suffering from chronic non-communicable diseases: A meta-analysis (Acta pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia), 2023) Meta-analysis Intravenous sodium valproate in status epilepticus: review and Meta-analysis (The International journal of neuroscience, 2021) Meta-analysis Drug management for acute tonic-clonic convulsions including convulsive status epilepticus in children (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2018) Meta-analysis Anticonvulsant therapy for status epilepticus (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2014) Systematic review Pre-hospital and emergency department treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in adults: an evidence synthesis (Health technology assessment (Winchester, England), 2022) Systematic review Management of the first stage of convulsive status epilepticus in adults: a systematic review of current randomised evidence (Journal of neurology, 2022) Clinical trial publication Pharmacokinetics and 180-day safety of diazepam nasal spray in pediatric patients with epilepsy aged 2-5 years (Epilepsia, 2025) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIVALPROEX SODIUM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ESLICARBAZEPINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ESLICARBAZEPINE ACETATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETEROBARB	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHADIONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHOSUXIMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHOTOIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
EZOGABINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FELBAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FENFLURAMINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
FOSPHENYTOIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GABAPENTIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £2–£5 / 28–100 tabs · US $5–$12 / 30–90 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GANAXOLONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GLIMEPIRIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
GLYBURIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
IOMAZENIL (123I)	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LACOSAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LAMOTRIGINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LEVETIRACETAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LORCASERIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
LOVASTATIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEPHENYTOIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MEPHOBARBITAL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHARBITAL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHSUXIMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
MIDAZOLAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
NITRAZEPAM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
OXCARBAZEPINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PARAMETHADIONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PERAMPANEL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENACEMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENETURIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENOBARBITAL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENSUXIMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENYTOIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	8 trials 89 Cochrane 60 Meta-analysis 204 Trial pubs 99 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT03325439 — A Study to Test the Pharmacokinetics, Efficacy, and Safety of Brivaracetam in Newborns With Repeated Electroencephalographic Seizures (TERMINATED) PHASE3 NCT00552526 — Ketogenic Diet vs.Antiepileptic Drug Treatment in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE4 NCT00426673 — An Open-Label Interaction Study to Look at the Effects of Brivaracetam on Phenytoin When Taken Together in 15 Adult Patients With Epilepsy. (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT00510783 — IV Keppra in the Emergency Department for Prevention of Early Recurrent Seizures (COMPLETED) PHASE4 NCT02056236 — TELSTAR: Treatment of ELectroencephalographic STatus Epilepticus After Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (COMPLETED) NA NCT05236166 — Multicentre Study on Rapid Versus Slow Withdrawal of Antiepileptic Monotherapy (COMPLETED) NA NCT00627575 — AED/Statin Interaction Study (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT00612235 — Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder and Antiepileptic Drugs (COMPLETED) Published literature Cochrane review Breaking the resistance: a narrative review of the evolution from traditional drugs to precision therapies in epilepsy (Annals of medicine and surgery (2012), 2026) Cochrane review Psychiatric and behavioural side effects of antiseizure medications in epilepsy (Journal of neurology, 2025) Cochrane review Effects of Antiseizure Medications on Lipid Profile and Weight in Patients with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis (CNS drugs, 2025) Cochrane review Seizure control and adverse outcomes of lamotrigine use during pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2024) Cochrane review Anti-seizure medications for neonates with seizures (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2023) Meta-analysis Role of different anti-seizure medications on carotid intima-media thickness: A systematic review and meta-analysis (Medicine, 2025) Meta-analysis Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam for pediatric convulsive status epilepticus in emergency settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis (BMC neurology, 2025) Meta-analysis Valproic acid-induced hyperammonemia with encephalopathy in adults: A meta-analysis (International journal of clinical pharmacology and therapeutics, 2025) Meta-analysis Guidelines for Seizure Prophylaxis in Patients Hospitalized with Nontraumatic Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Clinical Practice Guideline for Health Care Professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society (Neurocritical care, 2025) Systematic review Pharmacogenomics of anti-seizure medications in epilepsy: a systematic review of genetic predictors of response and tolerance (Expert review of neurotherapeutics, 2026) Systematic review Optimizing phenytoin therapy: a systematic review of clinically relevant food and herb interactions (Frontiers in pharmacology, 2025) Systematic review Cytotoxic lesions of the corpus callosum related to epilepsy or anti-seizure medications: a systematic review (Seizure, 2025) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PHENYTOIN SODIUM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PREGABALIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PRIMIDONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PROGABIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
PROPOFOL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RALITOLINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
REMIFENTANIL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
RUFINAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
STIRIPENTOL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
SULTHIAME	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TIAGABINE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TOPIRAMATE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
TRIMETHADIONE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALPROATE SODIUM	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALPROIC ACID	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VALPROMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VERAPAMIL	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £2–£5 / 28 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30–60 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VERAPAMIL HYDROCHLORIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	UK £2–£5 / 28 tabs · US $4–$10 / 30–60 tabs	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
VIGABATRIN	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets
ZONISAMIDE	Small molecule	Preclinical	Emerging	15	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	Open Targets	ChEMBL Open Targets

Drug	Type	Phase	Evidence	Score	Price (UK / US)	Trials & literature	Sources	Links
ACETAZOLAMIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	UK £3–£8 / 28–56 tabs · US $8–$15 / 30 tabs	2 trials 2 Cochrane 2 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT00552526 — Ketogenic Diet vs.Antiepileptic Drug Treatment in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE4 NCT02904265 — Efficacy Study of Acetazolamide Versus Diazepam in Continuous Spike and Wave/Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (TERMINATED) PHASE2, PHASE3 Published literature Cochrane review Treatments for seizures in catamenial (menstrual-related) epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2021) Cochrane review Treatments for seizures in catamenial (menstrual-related) epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2019) Systematic review Episodic Ataxias: Primary and Secondary Etiologies, Treatment, and Classification Approaches (Tremor and other hyperkinetic movements (New York, N.Y.), 2023) Clinical trial publication AZATAX: Acetazolamide safety and efficacy in cerebellar syndrome in PMM2 congenital disorder of glycosylation (PMM2-CDG) (Annals of neurology, 2019) Clinical trial publication Acetazolamide in bipolar affective disorders (Annals of clinical psychiatry : official journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists, 1994) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ACETYLDIGITOXIN Repurposing via ATP1A2	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
AMPHETAMINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 Cochrane 2 Trial pubs View evidence Published literature Cochrane review Efficacy and Safety of Fenfluramine in Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (Neurology and therapy, 2023) Clinical trial publication Association of leukocytosis with amphetamine and cocaine use (TheScientificWorldJournal, 2014) Clinical trial publication D-amphetamine and delinquency: hyperkinesis persisting? (Diseases of the nervous system, 1974) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
BICALUTAMIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARBACHOL Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CIPROFLOXACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	2 trials 1 Trial pubs View evidence Registry trials NCT01431326 — Pharmacokinetics of Understudied Drugs Administered to Children Per Standard of Care (COMPLETED) NCT04763070 — Ciprofloxacin in Drug-resistant Epilepsy (COMPLETED) NA Published literature Systematic review Seizures as adverse events of antibiotic drugs: A systematic review (Neurology, 2015) Clinical trial publication Interaction between quinolones and caffeine (Drugs, 1987) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CLOMIPRAMINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DESLANOSIDE Repurposing via ATP1A2	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
DIAZEPAM Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	UK £1–£3 / 28 tabs · US $3–$8 / 30 tabs	8 trials 13 Cochrane 8 Meta-analysis 63 Trial pubs 28 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02904265 — Efficacy Study of Acetazolamide Versus Diazepam in Continuous Spike and Wave/Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (TERMINATED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT02724423 — Repeat-Dose Pharmacokinetics Study of NRL-1 in Epilepsy Subjects (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT05361447 — Diazepam Trial in GAD65 Associated Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT03636958 — Efficacy and Safety of Perampanel in Combination in Glioma-refractory Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) NA NCT03346382 — Emergency Medical Services and Epilepsy in Switzerland (COMPLETED) NCT03953820 — Diazepam Buccal Film (DBF) - Diastat Rectal Gel (DRG) Crossover Study (COMPLETED) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT03179891 — Study of Diazepam Buccal Film Administered in the Interictal and in the Ictal-Periictal States to Adults With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT02474407 — Bioavailability, Safety and Tolerability of Diazepam Nasal Spray Versus Diazepam Rectal Gel (Diastat®) (TERMINATED) PHASE2 Published literature Cochrane review Target Trial Emulation Meta-Analysis of Benzodiazepines For Out-of-Hospital Status Epilepticus in Adults (Evidance health sciences, 2026) Cochrane review Unmet needs in epileptic encephalopathy with spike-and-wave activation in sleep: A systematic review (Epilepsy research, 2024) Cochrane review Evidence-based guideline on management of status epilepticus in adult intensive care unit in resource-limited settings: a review article (Annals of medicine and surgery (2012), 2023) Cochrane review Antiepileptic drugs for the primary and secondary prevention of seizures after stroke (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2022) Cochrane review Prophylactic drug management for febrile seizures in children (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2021) Meta-analysis Effects of tranquilization therapy in elderly patients suffering from chronic non-communicable diseases: A meta-analysis (Acta pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia), 2023) Meta-analysis Intravenous sodium valproate in status epilepticus: review and Meta-analysis (The International journal of neuroscience, 2021) Meta-analysis Drug management for acute tonic-clonic convulsions including convulsive status epilepticus in children (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2018) Meta-analysis Anticonvulsant therapy for status epilepticus (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2014) Systematic review Pre-hospital and emergency department treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in adults: an evidence synthesis (Health technology assessment (Winchester, England), 2022) Systematic review Management of the first stage of convulsive status epilepticus in adults: a systematic review of current randomised evidence (Journal of neurology, 2022) Clinical trial publication Pharmacokinetics and 180-day safety of diazepam nasal spray in pediatric patients with epilepsy aged 2-5 years (Epilepsia, 2025) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DICHLORPHENAMIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIETHYLSTILBESTROL Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIGITOXIN Repurposing via ATP1A2	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
DIGOXIN Repurposing via ATP1A2	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	2 trials 2 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02172742 — The Effect of BIA 2-093 on the Steady-state Pharmacokinetics of Digoxin (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT01583036 — An Open-label, Single-centre Study Evaluating the Pharmacokinetics of Digoxin Alone and When Administered at Various Doses of Ezogabine/Retigabine in Healthy Adults. The Pharmacokinetics of Ezogabine/Retigabine and the N-acetyl Metabolite of Ezogabine/Retigabine (NAMR) Will Also be Assessed (COMPLETED) PHASE1 Published literature Clinical trial publication Effect of eslicarbazepine acetate on the pharmacokinetics of digoxin in healthy subjects (Fundamental & clinical pharmacology, 2009) Clinical trial publication [Digoxin--an active antiepileptic agent] (Farmakologiia i toksikologiia, 1991) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
EPIRUBICIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Hospital / IV specialty — prices per vial or dose (often hundreds–thousands USD/GBP)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ETHOXZOLAMIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FLUMAZENIL Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
IMIPRAMINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
INDAPAMIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
INDOMETHACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	28 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ISOSORBIDE DINITRATE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MAFENIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MECAMYLAMINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHAZOLAMIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
METHOXSALEN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
METOPROLOL Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	UK £2–£4 / 28 tabs · US $4–$9 / 30 tabs	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MIANSERIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
NALIDIXIC ACID Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
NICOTINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 trials 2 Cochrane 1 Meta-analysis 3 Trial pubs 2 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT06427967 — A Novel Social Emotional Learning Curriculum for Youth With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) NA Published literature Cochrane review How do smoking, vaping, and nicotine affect people with epilepsy and seizures? A scoping review protocol (PloS one, 2023) Cochrane review Use of Topiramate in the Spectrum of Addictive and Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review Comparing Treatment Schemes, Efficacy, and Safety Features (CNS drugs, 2021) Meta-analysis Exploring the Smoking-Epilepsy Nexus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies : Smoking and epilepsy (BMC medicine, 2024) Systematic review Nicotine as target-therapy in Sleep-Related Hypermotor Epilepsy due to nAChR genes mutation: case report and systematic review of literature (Sleep medicine, 2026) Systematic review Sudden Death in Adults Caused by Intracranial Pathology: A Systematic Review (Turkish neurosurgery, 2023) Systematic review Nicotine: A Targeted Therapy for Epilepsy Due to nAChR Gene Variants (Journal of child neurology, 2021) Clinical trial publication Nicotine increases sleep spindle activity (Journal of sleep research, 2019) Clinical trial publication Impact of an electronic cigarette on smoking reduction and cessation in schizophrenic smokers: a prospective 12-month pilot study (International journal of environmental research and public health, 2013) Clinical trial publication Nicotine as an antiepileptic agent in ADNFLE: an N-of-one study (Epilepsia, 2003) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
NIRAPARIB Repurposing via ASAH1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
NORFLOXACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	3 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
OFLOXACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 Trial pubs View evidence Published literature Clinical trial publication Interaction between quinolones and caffeine (Drugs, 1987) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
OLANZAPINE Repurposing via ATP1A2	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	2 Cochrane View evidence Published literature Cochrane review Interventions for psychotic symptoms concomitant with epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2015) Cochrane review Interventions for psychotic symptoms concomitant with epilepsy (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2008) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
OLAPARIB Repurposing via ASAH1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
PHENYTOIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	UK £3–£8 / supply · US $6–$15 / 30 tabs	8 trials 89 Cochrane 60 Meta-analysis 204 Trial pubs 99 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT03325439 — A Study to Test the Pharmacokinetics, Efficacy, and Safety of Brivaracetam in Newborns With Repeated Electroencephalographic Seizures (TERMINATED) PHASE3 NCT00552526 — Ketogenic Diet vs.Antiepileptic Drug Treatment in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE4 NCT00426673 — An Open-Label Interaction Study to Look at the Effects of Brivaracetam on Phenytoin When Taken Together in 15 Adult Patients With Epilepsy. (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT00510783 — IV Keppra in the Emergency Department for Prevention of Early Recurrent Seizures (COMPLETED) PHASE4 NCT02056236 — TELSTAR: Treatment of ELectroencephalographic STatus Epilepticus After Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (COMPLETED) NA NCT05236166 — Multicentre Study on Rapid Versus Slow Withdrawal of Antiepileptic Monotherapy (COMPLETED) NA NCT00627575 — AED/Statin Interaction Study (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT00612235 — Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder and Antiepileptic Drugs (COMPLETED) Published literature Cochrane review Breaking the resistance: a narrative review of the evolution from traditional drugs to precision therapies in epilepsy (Annals of medicine and surgery (2012), 2026) Cochrane review Psychiatric and behavioural side effects of antiseizure medications in epilepsy (Journal of neurology, 2025) Cochrane review Effects of Antiseizure Medications on Lipid Profile and Weight in Patients with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis (CNS drugs, 2025) Cochrane review Seizure control and adverse outcomes of lamotrigine use during pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2024) Cochrane review Anti-seizure medications for neonates with seizures (The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2023) Meta-analysis Role of different anti-seizure medications on carotid intima-media thickness: A systematic review and meta-analysis (Medicine, 2025) Meta-analysis Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam for pediatric convulsive status epilepticus in emergency settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis (BMC neurology, 2025) Meta-analysis Valproic acid-induced hyperammonemia with encephalopathy in adults: A meta-analysis (International journal of clinical pharmacology and therapeutics, 2025) Meta-analysis Guidelines for Seizure Prophylaxis in Patients Hospitalized with Nontraumatic Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Clinical Practice Guideline for Health Care Professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society (Neurocritical care, 2025) Systematic review Pharmacogenomics of anti-seizure medications in epilepsy: a systematic review of genetic predictors of response and tolerance (Expert review of neurotherapeutics, 2026) Systematic review Optimizing phenytoin therapy: a systematic review of clinically relevant food and herb interactions (Frontiers in pharmacology, 2025) Systematic review Cytotoxic lesions of the corpus callosum related to epilepsy or anti-seizure medications: a systematic review (Seizure, 2025) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
PRAZOSIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	UK £2–£6 / 28–60 tabs · US $5–$12 / 30–60 tabs	21 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
RUCAPARIB Repurposing via ASAH1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
SIROLIMUS Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	8 trials 2 Cochrane 3 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT04595513 — Stopping TSC Onset and Progression 2: Epilepsy Prevention in TSC Infants (COMPLETED) PHASE1, PHASE2 NCT05534672 — Placebo Controlled Study to Assess the Efficacy and Safety of Rapamycin in Drug Resistant Epilepsy Associated With Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (RECRUITING) PHASE3 NCT05104983 — Stopping TSC Onset and Progression 2B: Sirolimus TSC Epilepsy Prevention Study (RECRUITING) PHASE2 NCT00509431 — Erlotinib and Sirolimus in Treating Patients With Recurrent Malignant Glioma (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT03198949 — A Study Investigating the Anti-epileptic Efficacy of Afinitor (Everolimus) in Patients With Refractory Seizures Who Have Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type II (FCD II) (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT02451696 — A Pilot Study To Evaluate The Effects of Everolimus on Brain mTOR Activity and Cortical Hyperexcitability in TSC and FCD (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT07095933 — The Safety and Efficacy Evaluation of Everolimus as an Adjunctive Treatment for Focal Refractory Epilepsy (RECRUITING) EARLY_PHASE1 NCT07680322 — A Phase 2 Study of the Safety and Efficacy of AV078 in Participants With Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) Refractory Epilepsy (NOT_YET_RECRUITING) PHASE2 Published literature Cochrane review Prenatal mTOR Inhibitors in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex: Current Insights and Future Directions (Journal of clinical medicine, 2024) Cochrane review Interaction of cannabidiol with other antiseizure medications: A narrative review (Seizure, 2021) Clinical trial publication Effectiveness and safety of everolimus treatment in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex in real-world clinical practice (Orphanet journal of rare diseases, 2023) Clinical trial publication Sirolimus for epilepsy in children with tuberous sclerosis complex: A randomized controlled trial (Neurology, 2016) Clinical trial publication Mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors for intractable epilepsy and subependymal giant cell astrocytomas in tuberous sclerosis complex (The Journal of pediatrics, 2014) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
SULBACTAM Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	8 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TACROLIMUS ANHYDROUS Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT00545493 — Efficacy of Tacrolimus and I.V.-Immunoglobulins in Rasmussen Encephalitis (UNKNOWN) PHASE2, PHASE3 CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TALAZOPARIB Repurposing via ASAH1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	DGIdb	—
TAZOBACTAM Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	1 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT01431326 — Pharmacokinetics of Understudied Drugs Administered to Children Per Standard of Care (COMPLETED) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TROGLITAZONE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Approved	Strong	95	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DARAPLADIB Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	70	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FENRETINIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase III	Moderate	70	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
NM-702 Repurposing via ALDH7A1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	50	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	DGIdb	—
PEFCALCITOL Repurposing via ALDH7A1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	50	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	DGIdb	ChEMBL Open Targets
ALPRENOLOL Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
AMIFLOXACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
BROLAMFETAMINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
CARZENIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIFLOXACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
DIMECAMINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ELLAGIC ACID Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ENISOPROST Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FENCAMFAMIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
FLEROXACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
IDOXIFENE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
LYSERGIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
MERAFLOXACIN Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
TENAMFETAMINE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets
ZIDAPAMIDE Repurposing via AARS1	Small molecule	Phase II	Emerging	45	Varies — check openprescribing.net (UK) or costplusdrugs.com / GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL Open Targets

Natural Products

95 natural products with the same evidence schema as repurposed drugs — registry trials, PubMed literature, and reference links (pipeline-ranked). Only agents with direct clinical evidence are shown by default.

Reference lookups: Examine.com

Show agents without direct trial evidence

Drug	Type	Phase	Evidence	Score	Price (UK / US)	Trials & literature	Sources	Links
Omega-3 Fatty Acids Natural product Clinical trial publication Altered IFN-γ Levels after Treatment of Epileptic Patients with Omega-3… Clinical trial publication The differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexae… Clinical trial publication RMSSD, a measure of vagus-mediated heart rate variability, is associate…	Nutraceutical	Approved	Moderate	20	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	6 trials 1 Cochrane 5 Trial pubs View evidence Registry trials NCT01744275 — HOPE-Epilepsy Trial (SUSPENDED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT02899741 — Efficacy of Omega-3 as Adjunctive Therapy for Medically Intractable Epilepsy: A Prospective Open-label Pilot Study (UNKNOWN) PHASE2 NCT02670161 — Quality Improvement and Practice Based Research in Neurology Using the EMR (ENROLLING_BY_INVITATION) PHASE4 NCT00871377 — Double Blind, Crossover Study of Fish Oil [EPA and DHA] for Intractable Partial Seizures (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT00299533 — Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids for Adjunctive Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT02348073 — Efficacy of Phosphatidylserine Enriched With n-3 PUFA Supplementation on ADHD in Children With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 Published literature Clinical trial publication Altered IFN-γ Levels after Treatment of Epileptic Patients with Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Journal of molecular neuroscience : MN, 2021) Clinical trial publication The differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on seizure frequency in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy - A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2018) Clinical trial publication RMSSD, a measure of vagus-mediated heart rate variability, is associated with risk factors for SUDEP: the SUDEP-7 Inventory (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2010) Clinical trial publication Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with chronic epilepsy: a randomized trial (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2005) Clinical trial publication Diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids alleviates convulsion symptoms in epilepsy patients (Epilepsia, 2002) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Examine.com	PubChem Examine.com
Omega-3 Fatty Acids Natural product Clinical trial publication Altered IFN-γ Levels after Treatment of Epileptic Patients with Omega-3… Clinical trial publication The differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexae… Clinical trial publication RMSSD, a measure of vagus-mediated heart rate variability, is associate…	Nutraceutical	Approved	Emerging	19	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	6 trials 1 Cochrane 5 Trial pubs View evidence Registry trials NCT01744275 — HOPE-Epilepsy Trial (SUSPENDED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT02899741 — Efficacy of Omega-3 as Adjunctive Therapy for Medically Intractable Epilepsy: A Prospective Open-label Pilot Study (UNKNOWN) PHASE2 NCT02670161 — Quality Improvement and Practice Based Research in Neurology Using the EMR (ENROLLING_BY_INVITATION) PHASE4 NCT00871377 — Double Blind, Crossover Study of Fish Oil [EPA and DHA] for Intractable Partial Seizures (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT00299533 — Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids for Adjunctive Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT02348073 — Efficacy of Phosphatidylserine Enriched With n-3 PUFA Supplementation on ADHD in Children With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 Published literature Clinical trial publication Altered IFN-γ Levels after Treatment of Epileptic Patients with Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Journal of molecular neuroscience : MN, 2021) Clinical trial publication The differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on seizure frequency in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy - A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2018) Clinical trial publication RMSSD, a measure of vagus-mediated heart rate variability, is associated with risk factors for SUDEP: the SUDEP-7 Inventory (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2010) Clinical trial publication Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with chronic epilepsy: a randomized trial (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2005) Clinical trial publication Diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids alleviates convulsion symptoms in epilepsy patients (Epilepsia, 2002) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ClinicalTrials.gov, Examine.com	PubChem Examine.com
Vitamin D3 Natural product Randomized controlled trial Effect of vitamin D supplementation on metabolic syndrome and atheroscl… Randomized controlled trial Vitamin D deficiency and effect of treatment on seizure frequency and q… Randomized controlled trial Effect of high dose vitamin d supplementation on vitamin d nutrition st…	Nutraceutical	Approved	Emerging	19	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	8 trials 3 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02890823 — Effect of Three Different Doses of Oral Cholecalciferol on 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Changes Among Epilepsy Patients With Hypovitaminosis D (COMPLETED) PHASE4 NCT07096414 — Effect of Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Brain Waves in Male Epileptic Patients With Hypovitaminosis D (RECRUITING) NA NCT03536845 — Vitamin D Supplementation to Prevent Vitamin D Deficiency for Children With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT07085598 — Effect of Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Cardiac Autonomic Nerve Function in Male Epileptic Patients With Hypovitaminosis D (RECRUITING) NA NCT06736002 — Effects of Mega-dose Vitamin D Pulse and Maintenance Therapy on Seizure Frequency, Fatigue, and Quality of Life: A Prospective Study (RECRUITING) NA NCT03475225 — Vitamine D in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT07651709 — Bone Management in Pregnancy Outcomes in Epilepsy (RECRUITING) NA NCT00869622 — Antiepileptic Drugs and Osteoporotic Prevention Trial (COMPLETED) PHASE4 Published literature Randomized controlled trial Effect of vitamin D supplementation on metabolic syndrome and atherosclerosis biomarkers in epilepsy: a randomized controlled trial (Medicinski glasnik : official publication of the Medical Association of Zenica-Doboj Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2026) Randomized controlled trial Vitamin D deficiency and effect of treatment on seizure frequency and quality of life parameters in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy: A randomized clinical trial (Epilepsia, 2024) Randomized controlled trial Effect of high dose vitamin d supplementation on vitamin d nutrition status of pre-pubertal children on anti-epileptic drugs - A randomized controlled trial (Clinical nutrition ESPEN, 2019) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ClinicalTrials.gov	PubChem
Cannabidiol (CBD) Natural product Clinical trial publication Comparative Pharmacokinetics and Safety of Cannabidiol in a Powder Form… Clinical trial publication Long-term efficacy and safety of cannabidiol in patients with treatment… Clinical trial publication Concomitant cannabidiol does not impact safety and effectiveness of dia…	Nutraceutical	Phase III	Moderate	19	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	8 trials 30 Trial pubs 13 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02461706 — Treatment of Drug Resistant Epilepsy (NO_LONGER_AVAILABLE) NCT02700412 — University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) Adult CBD Program (COMPLETED) PHASE1 NCT02783092 — A Double-Blind Trial to Evaluate Efficacy and Safety of Cannabidiol as an add-on Therapy for Treatment in Refractory Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE3 NCT03676049 — Cannabidiol for Drug Resistant Pediatric Epilepsy (Expanded Access Use) (AVAILABLE) NCT03355300 — Long-Term Safety of Pharmaceutical Grade Synthetic Cannabidiol Oral Solution in Pediatric Participants With Treatment-Resistant Childhood Absence Seizures (TERMINATED) PHASE2 NCT02564952 — An Open-label Extension Study to Investigate Possible Drug-drug Interactions Between Clobazam and Cannabidiol (COMPLETED) PHASE2 NCT05803434 — Cannabidiol in Children and Young Adults With Rare Disease-associated Severe Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE2 NCT02447198 — Cannabidiol (CBD) and Pediatric Epilepsy (COMPLETED) Published literature Clinical trial publication Comparative Pharmacokinetics and Safety of Cannabidiol in a Powder Formulation, CBtru(®), vs an Oil-Based Formulation, Epidyolex(®), Under Fasted and Fed Conditions in Healthy Participants: A Randomized Open-Label Cross-Over Phase I Study (CNS drugs, 2026) Clinical trial publication Long-term efficacy and safety of cannabidiol in patients with treatment-resistant focal epilepsies treated in the Expanded Access Program (Epilepsia, 2025) Clinical trial publication Concomitant cannabidiol does not impact safety and effectiveness of diazepam nasal spray for seizure clusters: Post hoc analysis of a phase 3 safety study (Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 2023) Clinical trial publication Pharmacokinetic Drug-Drug Interaction With Coadministration of Cannabidiol and Everolimus in a Phase 1 Healthy Volunteer Trial (Clinical pharmacology in drug development, 2023) Clinical trial publication Cannabis-based magistral formulation is highly effective as an adjuvant treatment in drug-resistant focal epilepsy in adult patients: an open-label prospective cohort study (Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology, 2023) Randomized controlled trial Time to onset of cannabidiol treatment effect and resolution of adverse events in tuberous sclerosis complex: Post hoc analysis of randomized controlled phase 3 trial GWPCARE6 (Epilepsia, 2022) Randomized controlled trial Long-term cannabidiol treatment for seizures in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex: An open-label extension trial (Epilepsia, 2022) Randomized controlled trial Add-on cannabidiol in patients with Dravet syndrome: Results of a long-term open-label extension trial (Epilepsia, 2021) Randomized controlled trial Time to onset of cannabidiol (CBD) treatment effect in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: Analysis from two randomized controlled trials (Epilepsia, 2021) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Examine.com	Examine.com
Folic Acid (Vitamin B9) Natural product Human Study 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with use of… Human Study A combination of gastrodin, folate, and vitamin-B12 in addition to stan… Human Study Elevated serum lipid peroxidation and reduced vitamin c and trace eleme…	Nutraceutical	Phase III	Moderate	19	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	4 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT02318446 — Efficacy Study of Folic Acid Supplementation in Adolescent Epileptics (UNKNOWN) PHASE3 NCT06213090 — Patterns of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (RECRUITING) NCT01231646 — Does Valproate Increase Levels of Folate Receptor Autoantibodies in Women? (COMPLETED) NCT04488172 — Exploring the Effects of Genetic Variants and Inflammation on Vitamins Supplementation Treatment Outcomes in Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) NA CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Examine.com	Examine.com
Melatonin Natural product Meta Analysis, Review This systematic review found that add-on melatonin therapy improved sle… Human Study Effect of add-on melatonin on seizure outcomes and quality of sleep in… Meta Analysis, Review Omega-3 supplementation resulted in beneficial effects on seizure frequ…	Nutraceutical	Approved	Moderate	17	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	8 trials 12 Cochrane 17 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT05654415 — Melatonin vs Sleep Deprivation for Nap EEG (UNKNOWN) NA NCT05256173 — Clinical Study on the Effect of Improving Sleep Quality on Cognitive Function in Patients With Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) NA NCT01370486 — Melatonin Versus Placebo in the Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome: Neurophysiological and Neuropsychological Effects (WITHDRAWN) PHASE4 NCT01161108 — Trial of Melatonin to Improve Sleep in Children With Epilepsy and Neurodevelopmental Disabilities (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT02195661 — The Role of Melatonin in the Effective Attainment of Sleep Electroencephalograms (EEG) in Children (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT07221968 — Melatonin for the Treatment of DEE-SWAS (NOT_YET_RECRUITING) PHASE2 NCT05439876 — Getting SMART for Pediatric Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT00965575 — Pilot Study of Melatonin and Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2 CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Examine.com	PubChem Examine.com
Black Seed Oil Natural product Meta Analysis Protective effects of curcumin on epileptic rodent models by alleviatin… Animal Study, In Vitro Study Ameliorative effect of ethanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves in… Animal Study Curcumin has potential anti-epileptic effects.	Botanical	Preclinical	Moderate	17	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	1 Trial pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Examine.com	PubChem Examine.com
Melatonin Natural product Meta Analysis, Review This systematic review found that add-on melatonin therapy improved sle… Meta Analysis, Review Omega-3 supplementation resulted in beneficial effects on seizure frequ… Human Study Effect of add-on melatonin on seizure outcomes and quality of sleep in…	Nutraceutical	Approved	Emerging	16	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	8 trials 12 Cochrane 17 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT05654415 — Melatonin vs Sleep Deprivation for Nap EEG (UNKNOWN) NA NCT05256173 — Clinical Study on the Effect of Improving Sleep Quality on Cognitive Function in Patients With Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) NA NCT01370486 — Melatonin Versus Placebo in the Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome: Neurophysiological and Neuropsychological Effects (WITHDRAWN) PHASE4 NCT01161108 — Trial of Melatonin to Improve Sleep in Children With Epilepsy and Neurodevelopmental Disabilities (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT02195661 — The Role of Melatonin in the Effective Attainment of Sleep Electroencephalograms (EEG) in Children (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT07221968 — Melatonin for the Treatment of DEE-SWAS (NOT_YET_RECRUITING) PHASE2 NCT05439876 — Getting SMART for Pediatric Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT00965575 — Pilot Study of Melatonin and Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2 CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ClinicalTrials.gov, Examine.com	PubChem Examine.com
Vitamin C Natural product Human Study 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with use of… Human Study A combination of gastrodin, folate, and vitamin-B12 in addition to stan… Human Study Elevated serum lipid peroxidation and reduced vitamin c and trace eleme…	Nutraceutical	Phase II	Emerging	16	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	2 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT02369822 — Trial of Vitamin C as Add on Therapy for Children With Idiopathic Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE2 NCT05613166 — Adjunctive Everolimus Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE2 CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ClinicalTrials.gov	PubChem
Multivitamin Natural product Cochrane review Guideline No. 427: Folic Acid and Multivitamin Supplementation for Prev… Meta Analysis, Review Omega-3 supplementation resulted in beneficial effects on seizure frequ… Human Study 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with use of…	Nutraceutical	Phase III	Emerging	16	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	6 trials 1 Cochrane View evidence Registry trials NCT01880333 — Evaluation of the Modified Atkins Diet in Young Children With Refractory Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT01006811 — Use of the Modified Atkins Diet in Infantile Spasms (COMPLETED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT02565966 — Understanding the Mechanism(s) of Action on the Modified Atkins Diet for Epilepsy: Human Brain Tissues (COMPLETED) NA NCT04172311 — Modified Atkins Diet Versus Levetiracetam for Refractory Childhood Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT00836836 — Modified Atkins Diet in Childhood Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE2, PHASE3 NCT04488172 — Exploring the Effects of Genetic Variants and Inflammation on Vitamins Supplementation Treatment Outcomes in Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) NA Published literature Cochrane review Guideline No. 427: Folic Acid and Multivitamin Supplementation for Prevention of Folic Acid-Sensitive Congenital Anomalies (Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology Canada : JOGC = Journal d'obstetrique et gynecologie du Canada : JOGC, 2022) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ClinicalTrials.gov	—
Coenzyme Q10 Natural product Coenzyme Q10 treatment in mitochondrial encephalomyopathies. Short-term…	Nutraceutical	Phase II	Emerging	16	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	3 trials 1 Trial pubs 1 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT07537283 — Coenzyme Q10 as Adjunctive Therapy in Drug-Resistant Epilepsy (COMPLETED) NA NCT01694940 — North American Mitochondrial Disease Consortium Patient Registry and Biorepository (NAMDC) (RECRUITING) NCT04488172 — Exploring the Effects of Genetic Variants and Inflammation on Vitamins Supplementation Treatment Outcomes in Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) NA CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ClinicalTrials.gov	PubChem
Turmeric Natural product	Botanical	Phase I	Emerging	10	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	1 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT03254680 — Turmeric as Treatment in Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) NA CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	ClinicalTrials.gov	PubChem
Vitamin D3 Natural product Randomized controlled trial Effect of vitamin D supplementation on metabolic syndrome and atheroscl… Randomized controlled trial Vitamin D deficiency and effect of treatment on seizure frequency and q… Randomized controlled trial Effect of high dose vitamin d supplementation on vitamin d nutrition st…	Nutraceutical	Approved	Emerging	10	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	8 trials 3 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02890823 — Effect of Three Different Doses of Oral Cholecalciferol on 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Changes Among Epilepsy Patients With Hypovitaminosis D (COMPLETED) PHASE4 NCT07096414 — Effect of Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Brain Waves in Male Epileptic Patients With Hypovitaminosis D (RECRUITING) NA NCT03536845 — Vitamin D Supplementation to Prevent Vitamin D Deficiency for Children With Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT07085598 — Effect of Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Cardiac Autonomic Nerve Function in Male Epileptic Patients With Hypovitaminosis D (RECRUITING) NA NCT06736002 — Effects of Mega-dose Vitamin D Pulse and Maintenance Therapy on Seizure Frequency, Fatigue, and Quality of Life: A Prospective Study (RECRUITING) NA NCT03475225 — Vitamine D in Drug Resistant Epilepsy (COMPLETED) PHASE3 NCT07651709 — Bone Management in Pregnancy Outcomes in Epilepsy (RECRUITING) NA NCT00869622 — Antiepileptic Drugs and Osteoporotic Prevention Trial (COMPLETED) PHASE4 Published literature Randomized controlled trial Effect of vitamin D supplementation on metabolic syndrome and atherosclerosis biomarkers in epilepsy: a randomized controlled trial (Medicinski glasnik : official publication of the Medical Association of Zenica-Doboj Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2026) Randomized controlled trial Vitamin D deficiency and effect of treatment on seizure frequency and quality of life parameters in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy: A randomized clinical trial (Epilepsia, 2024) Randomized controlled trial Effect of high dose vitamin d supplementation on vitamin d nutrition status of pre-pubertal children on anti-epileptic drugs - A randomized controlled trial (Clinical nutrition ESPEN, 2019) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed		PubChem
Vitamin B12 Natural product Clinical trial publication The effect of vitamin B supplementation on homocysteine metabolism and… Clinical trial publication [Clinical studies on fifty-seven Chinese patients with combined methylm… Clinical trial publication Effect of long-term carbamazepine therapy on serum lipids, vitamin B12…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	10	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	6 Trial pubs View evidence Published literature Clinical trial publication The effect of vitamin B supplementation on homocysteine metabolism and clinical state of patients with chronic epilepsy treated with carbamazepine and valproic acid (Seizure, 2012) Clinical trial publication [Clinical studies on fifty-seven Chinese patients with combined methylmalonic aciduria and homocysteinemia] (Zhonghua er ke za zhi = Chinese journal of pediatrics, 2007) Clinical trial publication Effect of long-term carbamazepine therapy on serum lipids, vitamin B12 and folic acid levels in children (Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism : JPEM, 2003) Clinical trial publication Hematologic manifestations and impaired liver synthetic function during valproate monotherapy (Brain & development, 1996) Clinical trial publication Folate and vitamin B12 in epilepsy (British medical journal, 1970) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed		PubChem
Folate Natural product Randomized controlled trial An assessment of serum and red blood cell folate concentrations in pati… Randomized controlled trial Folic acid in folate-deficient patients with epilepsy Human Study A combination of gastrodin, folate, and vitamin-B12 in addition to stan…	Nutraceutical	Phase III	Emerging	10	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	4 trials 5 Cochrane 2 RCT View evidence Registry trials NCT02318446 — Efficacy Study of Folic Acid Supplementation in Adolescent Epileptics (UNKNOWN) PHASE3 NCT06213090 — Patterns of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (RECRUITING) NCT01231646 — Does Valproate Increase Levels of Folate Receptor Autoantibodies in Women? (COMPLETED) NCT04488172 — Exploring the Effects of Genetic Variants and Inflammation on Vitamins Supplementation Treatment Outcomes in Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) NA Published literature Randomized controlled trial An assessment of serum and red blood cell folate concentrations in patients with epilepsy on lamotrigine therapy (Epilepsy research, 1992) Randomized controlled trial Folic acid in folate-deficient patients with epilepsy (British medical journal, 1970) CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed		PubChem
Vitamin C Natural product Human Study Elevated serum lipid peroxidation and reduced vitamin c and trace eleme… Human Study 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with use of… Human Study A combination of gastrodin, folate, and vitamin-B12 in addition to stan…	Nutraceutical	Phase II	Emerging	10	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	2 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT02369822 — Trial of Vitamin C as Add on Therapy for Children With Idiopathic Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE2 NCT05613166 — Adjunctive Everolimus Treatment of Refractory Epilepsy (UNKNOWN) PHASE2 CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed		PubChem
Lycopene Natural product	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	10	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	No indexed hits View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed		PubChem
Peppermint Natural product Mentha piperita Oil Exerts an Antiepileptic Effect in Pilocarpine and P…	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	10	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	1 pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed		—
Black Seed Oil Natural product Meta Analysis Protective effects of curcumin on epileptic rodent models by alleviatin… Animal Study, In Vitro Study Ameliorative effect of ethanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves in… Animal Study Curcumin has potential anti-epileptic effects.	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	1 Trial pubs View evidence CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed	Examine.com	PubChem Examine.com
Curcumin Natural product Mechanism of Curcuma longa and Its Neuroactive Components for the Manag…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	1 trials View evidence Registry trials NCT03254680 — Turmeric as Treatment in Epilepsy (WITHDRAWN) NA CT.gov search · Cochrane · PubMed		PubChem
Berberine Natural product Animal Study Anti-inflammation associated protective mechanism of berberine and its… Animal Study Berberine ameliorates intrahippocampal kainate-induced status epileptic…	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Bacopa Natural product Animal Study B. monnieri treatments could be effective in managing the neurotransmit… Animal Study Bacopa monnieri exhibited anti-seizure activity.	Ayurvedic	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Ashwagandha Natural product Animal Study, In Vitro Study Withaferin A protects against epilepsy by promoting LCN2-mediated astro… Animal Study Altered muscarinic receptor expression in the cerebral cortex of epilep… Animal Study Anticonvulsant activity of methanolic extract of Withania cogulans in m…	Ayurvedic	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Sulforaphane Natural product Animal Study DL-3-n-butylphthalide promotes hippocampal neurogenesis and reduces mos…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Probiotics Natural product Targeting the gut-brain axis: microbial interventions for neurological… Investigating the effect of probiotics on seizure-related symptoms in c… From association to intervention: Semantic trajectories and knowledge f…	Probiotic	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Echinacea Natural product	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Reishi Natural product Acute neurotoxicity in a child following multi-component medicinal fung… Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) an edible mushroom; a comprehensive and crit… Effects of ganoderic acid A on lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammato…	Mushroom	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Niacin Natural product Human Study 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with use of… Human Study A combination of gastrodin, folate, and vitamin-B12 in addition to stan… Human Study Elevated serum lipid peroxidation and reduced vitamin c and trace eleme…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Moringa Natural product Animal Study, In Vitro Study Ameliorative effect of ethanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves in…	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Saffron Natural product Animal Study Anti-epileptic effect of crocin on experimental temporal lobe epilepsy.	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Elderberry Natural product Animal Study Elderberry extracts have multiple mechanisms for its anticonvulsant act…	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Fenugreek Natural product Neuroprotective effects of trigonelline in kainic acid-induced epilepsy…	Botanical	Preclinical	Emerging	7	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Cannabidiol Natural product Meta Analysis A review and meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of cannabidiol in… Human Study Add-on cannabidiol may be an efficacious long-term treatment option for… Human Study Artisanal cannabidiol-enriched cannabis may be an effective and safe lo…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	2	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Digoxin Natural product	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL PubChem ChEMBL
Cassaine Natural product	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL PubChem ChEMBL
Digitoxigenin Natural product	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL PubChem ChEMBL
Digitoxin Natural product	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—	ChEMBL	ChEMBL PubChem ChEMBL
(2S)-2-amino-3-hydroxy-propionic acid Natural product Human Study 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with use of…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—	ClinicalTrials.gov	PubChem
(3R,4S,5R,6R)-6-methyloltetrahydropyran-2,3,4,5-tetrol Natural product	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—	ClinicalTrials.gov	PubChem
Medium Chain Triglycerides Natural product Human Study The ketogenic diet could be implemented in medium resources countries a…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Cannabinoids Natural product Animal Study Cannabidiol exerts anticonvulsant effects alone and in combination with… Animal Study Cannabidivarin-rich cannabis extracts exerted significant anticonvulsan…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Gastrodin Natural product Human Study A combination of gastrodin, folate, and vitamin-B12 in addition to stan… Animal Study Gastrodin contributed to the alleviation of pediatric epilepsy.	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Cannabis Natural product Human Study Cannabidiol treatment yielded a significant positive effect on seizure… Human Study Eighty five percent of all parents reported a reduction in seizure freq… Human Study Artisanal cannabidiol-enriched cannabis may be an effective and safe lo…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Astaxanthin Natural product Animal Study Astaxanthin attenuates neuroinflammation in status epilepticus. Animal Study Astaxanthin could have an antiepileptic and anti-inflammatory effect by… Animal Study Astaxanthin exerted a reobvious neuroprotective effect in pilocarpine-i…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Flavonoids Natural product Animal Study Baicalin rescues cognitive dysfunction, mitigates neurodegeneration, an… Animal Study, In Vitro Study Baicalin suppresses neuron autophagy and apoptosis by regulating astroc…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Nigella Sativa (Aka Black Seed) Natural product	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Peony Natural product Human Study Efficacy and tolerability of hydroalcoholic extract of Paeonia officina… Animal Study Anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effects of paeonol in epileptic rats.	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Rosemaric Acid Natural product Animal Study, In Vitro Study Beneficial effects of rosmarinic acid in models of epileptiform activit…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Ginsenosides Natural product Animal Study, In Vitro Study Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits CBP/p300-mediated FOXO3a acetylation and epile…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Vinpocetine Natural product Human: Case Report Precision medicine: Vinpocetine as a potential treatment for GABRG2-rel… Human: Case Report Vinpocetine improved neuropsychiatric and epileptic outcomes in a patie…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Icariin Natural product Animal Study Anti-inflammatory effects of icariin in the acute and chronic phases of…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Pterostilbene Natural product Animal Study Anticonvulsant effect of pterostilbene.	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Delta-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) Natural product Animal Study Cannabidiol exerts anticonvulsant effects alone and in combination with…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Lemongrass Natural product Animal Study Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, citral and geraniol exhibit anticonvul…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Capsaicin Natural product Animal Study Electromagnetic radiation (Wi-Fi) and epilepsy induce calcium entry and…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Glycyrrhizin Natural product Animal Study Glycyrrhizic acid protects against temporal lobe epilepsy. Animal Study Glycyrrhizin regulates the HMGB1/P38MAPK signalling pathway in status e…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Huperzine Natural product Biotechnological approaches for the production of neuroactive huperzine… Extended release huperzine for the treatment of idiopathic epilepsy in… Huperzine A attenuates epileptic seizures via enhancing dCA1-projecting…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Magnolia Natural product Honokiol-induced SIRT3 upregulation protects hippocampal neurons by sup… Mechanisms of natural products as potential antiepileptic drugs Magnolia officinalis Reduces Inflammation and Damage Induced by Recurre…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Myricetin Natural product Hydroalcoholic extract of Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. reinstates r… A near-infrared fluorescent probe for dynamic HClO monitoring in epilep… Targeting JNK3: An In-silico Approach to Uncover Potential Therapeutics…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Chrysin Natural product Recent Advances in Bioactive Flavonoids-based Nanotherapeutics as Promi… Role of Nrf2 in Epilepsy Treatment An integrated in vitro human iPSCs-derived neuron and in vivo animal ap…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Piperine Natural product Optimizing phenytoin therapy: a systematic review of clinically relevan… A Systematic Review of the Anti-seizure and Antiepileptic Effects and M… A systematic review on Piper longum L.: Bridging traditional knowledge…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Cannabinoids: Synthetic Natural product Animal Study Cannabidiol exerts anticonvulsant effects alone and in combination with… Animal Study Cannabidivarin-rich cannabis extracts exerted significant anticonvulsan…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Fisetin Natural product Mannosylated fisetin/carveol lipid nanocapsules: brain-targeted dual th… Recent Advances in Bioactive Flavonoids-based Nanotherapeutics as Promi… Anxiolytic and Anticonvulsant Effects of Fisetin Isolated from Bauhinia…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Vitexins Natural product	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Evening Primrose Oil Natural product Human Study Evening primrose is safe, and may have therapeutic action for epileptic…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
B-Complex Natural product Human Study High homocysteine levels may be associated with the pathogenesis of neu… Human Study Ketogenic diet is an important non-pharmacological treatment option for… Human Study The ketogenic diet appeared to be an effective therapeutic modality for…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Dill Natural product Animal Study A. graveolens extract could have protective effect on the dentate gyrus…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Globimetula Braunii Natural product Animal Study An extract of Globimetula braunii leaves possesses psychoactive compoun…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Royal Jelly Natural product Animal Study Anticonvulsant effects of royal jelly in kainic acid-induced animal mod…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Asiatic Acid Natural product Animal Study Asiatic acid can prevent seizures and improve cognitive impairment.	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Baicalein Natural product Animal Study, In Vitro Study Baicalein exerted antiepileptic effects by regulation of IGF1R in a pil…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Benzyl Isothiocyanate Natural product Animal Study Benzyl isothiocyanate ameliorates cognitive function in mice of chronic…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Carnosine Natural product Animal Study Carnosine, a precursor of histidine, ameliorates pentylenetetrazole-ind…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-Hexol Natural product Animal Study Concentration- and time-dependent effects of myo-inositol on evoked epi…	Food compound	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		PubChem
Piperidines Natural product Animal Study Curcumin protects against oxidative insult induced by pentylenetetrazol…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Geraniol Natural product Animal Study Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, citral and geraniol exhibit anticonvul…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Celery Oil Natural product Animal Study DL-3-n-butylphthalide promotes hippocampal neurogenesis and reduces mos…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Vanillic Acid Natural product Animal Study Effect of vanillic acid on pentylenetetrazole-kindled rats.	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
EGCG (Epigallocatechin Gallate) Natural product Animal Study EGCG attenuates CA1 neuronal death in the rat hippocampus following sta…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—
Phyllanthus Emblica Natural product Animal Study Emblica officnalis protects against drug-induced seizures, oxidative st…	Nutraceutical	Preclinical	Emerging	0	Varies — openprescribing.net (UK) / costplusdrugs.com or GoodRx (US)	—		—

Alterations and therapeutics are aggregated from public databases (Open Targets, HPO, ChEMBL, DGIdb, and others). Natural agents are candidates from OSMF narrative reviews on opensourcemed.info/chronic-disease.html — not approved treatments. This page is for research orientation only — not medical advice.

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